by Dr. Dianna Sisson and Dr. Betsy Sisson, Sisson & Sisson Educational Consulting Services, LLC
The achievement gap. Poverty. Racial inequalities. New educational standards. Changing platforms for student assessments. The international race between American students and competing nations. For over four decades, U.S. policymakers have searched for effective tools to raise student achievement and ensure American competiveness. What has research definitively established? Teacher quality is the single largest factor affecting student achievement (Boston Public Schools, 1998; Darling-Hammond, 1999; Jordan, Mendro, & Weerasinghe, 1997; Rowan, Correnti, & Miller, 2002; Sanders & Rivers, 1996; Sanders, 2000; Wright, Horn, & Sanders, 1997) with the strongest teacher qualification variable being an educator’s state licensure – so significant in fact that after controlling for student factors, the achievement gap between Black and White students can almost entirely be explained by differences in teacher qualifications (Armour- Thomas, et al., 1989; Ferguson, 1991; Fuller, 1999; Strauss & Sawyer, 1986).
What is universally accepted today is the understanding that educators have a profound effect on student achievement, and the programs they attend to develop this specialized skill set is critical to their effectiveness and ultimately . . . to the success of their students. As Connecticut continues to grapple with the largest achievement gap in the United States, the teaching and learning carried out in this state’s classrooms demand instructional support focused on the needs of a diverse student population. The key support commonly comes in the form of literacy specialists (Dole, 2004; Hawley & Valli, 1999; Sykes, 1999) who, with an advanced degree in literacy possess more sophisticated skills than their classroom colleagues, devote their professional energies to academic support.
This recognition of the power of literacy specialists to influence learning outcomes informs this current study on preparation programs. The Connecticut Association for Reading Research will conduct qualitative research on the preparation programs for literacy specialists in Connecticut. Do literacy specialists perceive themselves as comprehensively trained to meet the onslaught of needs they face daily in the field? What are the views of school administrators? Classroom teachers? Importantly, what views do leaders of these preparation programs hold?
As the world around us catapults into a rapidly changing landscape of student needs, technological challenges, and international competition, this study seeks to inform literacy specialist preparation programs in Connecticut as to the perceived needs and successes of training as well as what the future may hold for the ways in which we ensure that those who specialize in literacy come to the field thoroughly prepared to meet the needs of students, classroom teachers, and administrators as they all work collaboratively to assure that Connecticut classrooms offer a world-class education.
In looking at today’s preparation programs, an awareness of where we have come is essential to our understanding of what is in place as well as to an impartial analysis of current practice. In these efforts, we begin with what the literature tells us about the significance of teacher preparation programs.
Importance of Teacher Preparation Programs
Since the formation of teacher education, there have been few instances when it has not been studied, evaluated, and reformed (Cochran-Smith, 2004; Wideen & Grimmett, 1995). So, perhaps, not surprisingly, teacher preparation programs have once again been thrust onto the national stage by policymakers intent on using them as a tool to transform the educational system in this country. On April 26, 2014, The New York Times reported that President Obama’s administration was constructing a rating system for teacher preparation programs to ensure greater accountability for educators’ performance in the classroom. The newspaper quoted Secretary of Education Arne Duncan as saying that:
We have about 1,400 schools of education and hundreds and hundreds of alternative certification paths, and nobody in this country can tell anyone which is more effective than the other . . . Often the vast majority of schools, when I talk to teachers, and have very candid conversations, they feel they weren’t well prepared. (p. A12)
Such an undertaking is incredibly controversial as many education experts believe that it isn’t possible to link a preparation program to student achievement in schools, arguing that it isn’t feasible or helpful to rate programs. Linda Darling-Hammond, a professor at Stanford and one of the nation’s foremost experts on education, countered a more realistic rating system should be based on surveying graduates and their employers – as is illustrated in the current CARR study.
Despite its detractors, the federal government is moving forward with its efforts. What compelled such a decision can be viewed through two much-discussed, heavily-researched lenses – teacher influence on student achievement and education’s role in global competitiveness.
Teacher Effects on Student Achievement
Since the well-publicized study by James Coleman discounting the importance of schools and teachers to affect substantial changes in student achievement, large-scale research has consistently demonstrated that teachers do, in fact, have profound power to influence student outcomes (Carey, 2004; Ferguson, 1991; Ferguson & Ladd, 1996; Haycock, 1998; Jordan, Mendro, & Weerashinghe, 1997; Nye, Konstantopoulos, & Hedges, 2004; Odden, Borman, & Fermanich, 2004; Sanders, 2000; Sanders & Rivers, 1996) – particularly in the area of reading (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Goldhaber & Brewer, 2000). After reviewing the literature in 1997, Scheereens and Bosker posited that approximately 60% of variability in student performance stems from student factors, however, 20% relates back to the schools that students attend, and 20% links directly to individual teachers and classrooms. Thus, based on their appraisal of the existing research, schools and teachers can account for nearly half of the variation in student achievement — a conviction echoed by the general public who voiced their opinion in a study in which 55% of respondents selected teacher quality as “the greatest influence on student learning” (National Education Association, 1999).
This research has been substantiated with numerous studies corroborating the link between teacher quality and student achievement (Clotfelter, Ladd, & Vigdor, 2007; Goddard, Hoy, & Hoy, 2007; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001; Perry, 2011). The inarguable power of educators to affect student outcomes has become a significant rationale for examining teacher preparation programs. The perception that the education system plays a key role in the U.S. ability to compete globally is another significant factor.
Education’s Role in Global Competitiveness
In 1983, the U. S. Department of Education released the incendiary report, “A Nation at Risk” which spoke directly to teacher preparation programs and an evaluation of their effectiveness in training teachers.
The teacher preparation curriculum is weighted heavily with courses in “educational methods” at the expense of courses in subjects to be taught. A survey of 1,350 institutions training teachers indicated that 41 percent of the time of elementary school teacher candidates is spent in education courses, which reduces the amount of time available for subject matter courses. (National Commission on Excellence in Education, p. 20)
Interwoven throughout its findings, however, was a consistent link from educational outcomes to the ability of the United States to compete globally, beginning with these opening words: “Our Nation is at risk. Our once unchallenged preeminence in commerce, industry, science, and technological innovation is being overtaken by competitors throughout the world” (p. 9).
This conviction has consistently been reiterated throughout research, academic texts, and popular media (Barro, 2013; Lauder, Brown, Dillabough, & Halsey, 2006; Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2008; Sahlberg, 2006; The Role of Education in Global Competiveness, 2006; U. S. Chamber of Commerce Foundation, 2010). Thus, the belief that our educational system has a causal link to our economic well-being pervades all aspects of American society and impacts the role of preparation programs.
Current Status of Teacher Preparation Programs
With over 1,400 teacher preparation programs, 200,000 candidates leave training programs annually and enter the teaching profession. Twenty-five years ago, veteran teachers had an average of 15 years of experience; today that number is down to just one year with studies finding between 23% to 50% of teachers typically leaving the field within five years (Keigher, 2010; Plash & Piotrowski, 2006). Of greater concern, Levine’s seminal 2006 study revealed that three in five teachers feel that their teacher preparation program did not prepare them for the classroom. Their principals agreed.
In 2001, The U. S. Department of Education commissioned a report to summarize research on teacher preparation programs. After reviewing over 300 research studies, only 57 adhered to the inclusion criteria for their meta-analysis. The report determined that multiple studies found a link between training in subject matter and higher student achievement, particularly in reading. Studies also revealed that some pedagogical training is beneficial. The report further found that “study after study shows that experienced and newly certified teachers alike see clinical experiences (including student teaching) as a powerful – sometimes the single most powerful – component of teacher preparation” (Wilson, Floden, & Ferrini-Mundy, 2001, p. 17) and discovered that teachers performed better on certification tests if they attended an institution approved by the national accrediting association.
Within the preparation programs, literacy professionals also gain a specialized skill set necessary to support classroom instruction. How have these professionals emerged as a critical aspect of schools and classrooms?
The Specialized Field of Literacy Professionals
Literacy professionals have been an integral component of instructional support since the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965 which established federal funds for compensatory education in American schools. Within this model of Title I support, the literacy professional, more commonly known as the reading specialist, tended to work with struggling students and offered services in addition to classroom instruction, providing additional, targeted support with little attention to the needs of the classroom teacher. Despite the expense of providing literacy professionals, numerous studies reflected little evidence of continued student growth after they were returned to mainstream teachers (Allington & Walmsley, 1995). In 2000, Congress re-authorized the ESEA with three specific aspects directly influencing the role of the literacy professional: 1) highly-qualified professionals should be a requirement to teach reading, 2) reading programs and strategies should be scientifically-based, and 3) informal assessment should inform instruction.
Since 2003, the International Reading Association has recognized two distinct roles inherent in the role of literacy professionals – reading specialist and literacy coach (International Reading Association, 2004).
In this new role the reading specialist supports teachers in their daily work—planning, modeling, team-teaching, and providing feedback on completed lessons in collaboration with classroom teachers in a school. In addition, the reading specialist assists teachers by helping them understand the assessment and instructional cycle and how that cycle can help them as they develop lessons and organize their classes for instruction. (Dole, 2004, p. 462)
In the most recent draft, the International Reading Association (2009) offers six standards for the reading professional:
- foundational knowledge
- curriculum and instruction
- assessment and evaluation
- diversity
- literate environment
- professional learning and leadership.
After consulting a number of reading coaches from the field, Dole (2004) suggested that reading professionals require several attributes in order to be effective. They must have a greater expertise than the classrooms teachers they support and be capable of articulating what they see taking place in classrooms. They must have extensive knowledge about how to teach – both in theory and in practice – and be reflective about their own instructional practice. Coaches must also be able to “support and nudge” their colleagues as they help them improve their own practice.
How effective are literacy professionals in the field? Several studies have researched their impact on student achievement. In 2003, a study of the International Reading Association Exemplary Reading Program award-winning schools revealed that coaches act as change agents, providing instructional materials as well as a wide range of professional development support services, such as a: (1) resource to colleagues, (2) liaison between school and community, (3) coordinator of the school reading program, (4) contributor to assessment practices, and (5) instructor (Bean, Swan, & Knaub).
As the spotlight continues to highlight the work of literacy professionals, this current CARR study will be performing document analyses, conducting interviews, and holding focus groups as it seeks to provide a comprehensive review of how literacy professionals are prepared in Connecticut, the perceptions stakeholders maintain regarding their preparation, as well as the current and future policy ramifications of this research. The complete report will be released in late 2015.
References
Allington, R.L., & Walmsley, S.A. (1995). No quick fix: Rethinking literacy programs in America’s elementary schools. New York: Teachers College Press.
Armour-Thomas, E., Clay, C., Domanico, R., Bruno, K., & Allen, B. (1989). An outlier study of elementary and middle schools in New York City: Final report. New York, NY: New York City Board of Education.
Barro, R. J. (2013). Education and economic growth. Annals of Economics and Finance, 14(2), 277-304.
Bean, R.M., Swan, A.L., & Knaub, R. (2003). Reading specialists in schools with exemplary reading programs: Functional, versatile, prepared. The Reading Teacher, 56(4), 446-455.
Boston Public Schools. (1998, March 9). High school restructuring. Boston: Author.
Carey, K. (2004). The real value of teachers: If good teachers matter, why don’t we act like it? Thinking K-16, 8(1), 3-43.
Clotfelter, C. T., Ladd, H. F., & Vigdor, J. L. (2007). Teacher credentials and student achievement: Longitudinal analysis with student fixed effects. Economics of Education Review, 26(6), 673-682.
Cochran-Smith, M. (2004). The problem of teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 55(4), 295-299. doi: 10.1177/0022487104268057
Darling-Hammond, L. (1999b). Seattle, WA: Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy, University of Washington.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Education Policy Analysis Archives, 8(1). Available at http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v8n1/
Dole, J. A. (2004). The changing role of the reading specialist in school reform. ˆ, 57(5), 462- 471.
Ferguson, R.F. (1991). Paying for public education: New evidence on how and why money matters. ˆ, 28, 465–498.
Ferguson, R.F., & Ladd, H.F. (1996). How and why money matters: An analysis of Alabama schools. In H. Ladd (Ed.), Holding schools accountable (pp. 265–298). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
Fuller, E. J. (1999). Does teacher certification matter: A comparison of TASS performance in 1997 between schools with low and high percentages of certified teachers. Austin, TX: University of Texas at Austin, Charles A. Dana Center.National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for school reform. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Goddard, R. D., Hoy, W. K., & Hoy, A. W. (2007). Collective teacher efficacy: Its meaning, measure, and impact on student achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 37(2), 497-507. doi: 10.3102/00028312037002479
Goldhaber, D. D., & Brewer, D. J. (2000). Does teacher certification matter? High school teacher certification status and student achievement. Education Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 22, 129-145.
Hawley, W. D., & Valli, L. (1999). The essentials of effective professional development: A new consensus. In L. Darling-Hammond & G. Sykes (Eds.), Teaching as a learning profession (pp. 127- 150). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Haycock, K. (1998). Good teaching matters. Thinking K-16, 3(2), 2. International Reading Association. (2004). Standards for reading professionals: Revised. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Jordan, H.R., Mendro, R. L., & Weerasinghe, D. (1997, July 16). Teacher effects on longitudinal student achievement: A report on research in progress. Paper presented at the CREATE annual meeting.
Keigher, A. (2010). Teacher attrition and mobility: Results from the 2008-2009 teacher follow-up survey (NCES 2010-353). U. S. Department of Education. Washington, D.C.: Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch
Lauder, H., Brown, P., Dillabough, J. A. & Halsey, A. H. (2006). (Eds.), Education, globalization, and social change. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Levine, A. (2006). Educating school teachers. The Education Schools Project. Retrieved from http://www.edschools.org/pdf/Educating_Teachers_Report.pdf
Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D. J., & Pollock, J. E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. National Education Association. (1999). Teacher quality. Legislative action center [Online]. Available from http://www.nea.org/lac/papers/quality.html
Nye, B., Konstantopoulos, S., & Hedges, L. V. (2004). How large are teacher effects? Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 26, 237- 257.
Odden, A., Borman, G., & Fermanich, M. (2004). Assessing teacher, classroom, and school effects, including fiscal effects. Peabody Journal of Education, 79(4), 4-32.
Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2008). 21st century skills, education, & competitiveness: A resource and policy guide. Available from http://www.p21.org/storage/documents/21st_century_skills_education_and_competitiveness_guide.pdf
Plash, S., & Piotrowski, C. (2006). Retention issues: A study of Alabama special education teachers. Education, 127(1), 125-128.
Perry, A. (2011). Teacher preparation programs: A critical vehicle to drive student achievement. Re:Vision, 1, 1-8.
Rowan, B., Correnti, R., & Miller, R. J. (2002). What large-scale survey research tells us about teacher effects on student achievement: Insights from the Prospects study of elementary schools.(CPRE Research Report Series RR- 051). Philadelphia, PA: Consortium for Policy Research in Education.
Sahlberg, P. (2006). Education reform for raising economic competiveness. Journal of Educational Change, 7(4), 259-287.
Sanders, W., & Rivers, J. (1996). Cumulative and residual effects of teachers on future student academic achievement. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Value-Added Research and Assessment Center.
Sanders, W. L. (2000). Value-added assessment from student achievement data. Cary, NC: Create National Evaluation Institute.
Scheerens, J., & Bosker, R. (1997). The foundations of educational effectiveness. New York, NY: Pergamon.
Strauss, R. P., & Sawyer, E. A. (1986). Some new evidence on teacher and student competencies. Economics of Education Reviews, 5(1), 41- 48.
Sykes, G. (1999). Teacher and student learning. In L. Darling-Hammond & G. Sykes (Eds.), Teaching as a learning profession (pp. 151- 179). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
The Role of Education in Global Competitiveness. Hearing before the Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions. United States Senate, 109th Cong. (2006). Retrieved from http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG109shrg26056/html/CHRG109shrg26056.htm
U. S. Chamber of Commerce Foundation. (2010). Education: The key to global competitiveness. Available from http://education.uschamber.com/newsletter-article/education-key-global-competitiveness
Wideen, M. F., & Grimmett, P. P. (1995). Changing times in teacher education: Restructuring or reconceptulization. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge Falmer.
Wilson, S. M., Floden, R. E., & Ferrini-Mundy, J. (2001). Teacher preparation research: Current knowledge, gaps, and recommendations. (Document No. R-01-03). Retrieved from https://www.stcloudstate.edu/tpi/initiative/documents/preparation/Teacher%20Preparation%20Research-Current%20Knowledge,%20Gaps,%20and%20Recommendations.pdf
Wright, S. P., Horn, S. P., & Sanders, W. L. (1997). Teacher and classroom context effects on student achievement: Implications for teacher evaluation. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 11, 57-67.